TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING

B R R

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING

Never in the history of man,planning has been so much in forefront as it is today.The whole world is now passing through the planning age.
We have Defence planning at national level,Regional planning,Urban planning and Rural Planning at state level so on and so forth to Family Planning at Domestic level

''WITHOUT PLANNING NOTHING SUCCEEDS''




What is Planning?
Planning means prethinking and pre-arranging things before an event takes place so as to achieve good results in health,convenience,comfort and happiness of all living beings.By careful planning,we can eradicate the mistakes of the past and be wiser in the future

Town Planning
Town planning is considered as an art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of the town creating buildings and environments to meet the various needs such as social,cultural,economic and recreational etc.and to provide healthy conditions for both rich and poor to live,to work,and to play or relax,thus bringing about the social and economic well being for the majority of mankind.

A city should be built to give its inhabitants security and happiness.City is a place where people had a common life for noble end.

Aims and Objectives of Town Planning
The one who is planning(Planner) must have definite aims and objectives with regard to town planning
The main objectives are;
1)Health:(i)To create and promote healthy conditions and environment for all people(Rich and Poor)
 (ii)To make right use of land for the right purpose by proper division of land called ZONING such as Residential,Commercial,Industrial,Institutional and Recreational etc. in order to avoid the encroachment of one zone upon other for smooth and orderly development of the town or city without causing future conflicts.

Nitobond EP(Epoxy resin concrete bonding agent) by FOSROC

Nitobond EP(

Epoxy resin concrete bonding agent) by FOSROC

Uses

For bonding fresh wet cementitious materials to existing

cementitious surfaces. For use on horizontal surfaces or on

vertical surfaces where mortar or concrete can be supported

by formwork. The long ‘open’ life makes it suitable for use

with formwork or where additional steel reinforcement has to

be fitted. The product is ideal for roads, bridges, pavements,

loading bays and factories, and for bonded or granolithic floor

toppings. Nitobond EP is equally suited to internal and external

applications.

Nitobond EP may also be used as part of a repair system

where a substrate/repair barrier is required or where the

substrate is likely to remain permanently damp or wet.

n Can be applied on to dry or damp substrates

n Exhibits high mechanical strength

n Positive adhesion - exceeds that of the tensile strength

of the host concrete

n Slow cure allows time to erect steel reinforcement and

formwork

n Solvent-free - can be used in enclosed locations

Description

Nitobond EP is based on solvent-free epoxy resins containing

pigments and fine fillers. It is supplied as a two-component

material in pre-weighed quantities ready for on-site mixing

and use. The ‘base’ component is white and the ‘hardener’

component is green, providing visual evidence that adequate

mixing has been achieved.

Standards compliance

ASTM C881: Type I, II, III, IV and V, grade 2 class E & F.

Specification

Epoxy bonding agent

The bonding agent shall be Nitobond EP, a two-component

solvent-free epoxy resin. The two components shall be

differentially pigmented in order to ensure visually that correct

mixing has taken place prior to the application. The product

shall achieve 70 N/mm2 compressive strength, 36 N/mm2

tensile strength, 30% elongation, 14 N/mm2 bond strength

and water absorption of 0.05%, when tested in accordance

to ASTM C881: Type I, II, III, IV and V, grade 2 class E & F.

Properties

Test method Typical result

Compressive strength : 70 N/mm2

(ASTM D695)

Tensile strength : 36 N/mm2

(ASTM D638)

Elongation : 31%

(ASTM D638)

Slant Shear Strength : 38 N/mm²

(BS 6319, Part 4)

Thermal Compatibility : Passed

(ASTM C884)

Bond strength : 14 N/mm²

(ASTM C882)

Pull off strength : 2.82 N/mm²

(BS 1881: Part 207)

Water Absorption : 0.05%

(ASTM D570)

Gel time : >10 hours @ 20ºC

(ASTM C881, Cl 11.2) 5 hours @ 40ºC

Viscosity : 64 Poise

(ASTM D2393)

Full cure : 5 days @ 35ºC

4 days @ 45ºC

Maximum overlay time : 12 hours @ 35ºC

5 hours @ 45ºC

Minimum overlay time : 1 hour @ all temps

Design criteria

Nitobond EP is designed with an overlay time of 12 hours at

35ºC and 5 hours at 45ºC, making it more suitable for use

where additional steel reinforcement and formwork has to be

fitted or where temperatures are high. The minimum

application temperature for Nitobond EP is 5ºC. Consult the

local Fosroc office for further information.

Instructions for use

Preparation

Clean all surfaces and remove any dust, unsound material,

plaster, oil, paint, grease, corrosion deposits or algae.

Roughen the surfaces, remove any laitance and expose the

aggregate by light scabbling or grit-blasting.

Oil and grease deposits should be removed by steam cleaning,

detergent scrubbing or the use of a proprietary degreaser.

The effectiveness of decontamination and soundness of the

substrate should then be assessed by a pull-off test.

Mixing

Any steel reinforcement and formwork should be prepared,

cut to size and shape, and made ready for assembly before

mixing commences.

Care should be taken to ensure that Nitobond EP is thoroughly

mixed. The ‘hardener’ and ‘base’ components should be

stirred separately before mixing to disperse any settlement.

The entire contents of the ‘hardener’ tin should then be poured

into the ‘base’ tin and the two materials thoroughly mixed

using a suitable slow-speed drill and mixing paddle for 2

minutes until a fully uniform colour is obtained. The sides of

the tin should then be scraped and mixing should continue

for a further 2 minutes.

Application

Nitobond EP should be applied as soon as the mixing process

has been completed. It should be brush or spray-applied to

the prepared surfaces, being sure to achieve an unbroken

coating across the entire substrate.

The coated substrate should be left for a minimum of one

hour before the new concrete, screed or mortar is placed.

The maximum overlay times (see Properties) should also be

carefully observed. Failure to apply the new concrete, screed

or mortar within the maximum overcoating time will result in

Nitobond EP becoming ‘hard’, thus creating a slip plane rather

than a bonding action.

If the maximum overlay time is missed, then the Nitobond

EP must be mechanically removed and a fresh application

made. The concrete, screed or mortar should then be applied

in accordance with the overcoating minimum and maximum

stated above.

As soon as the Nitobond EP has been applied, any required

steel reinforcement and/or formwork should be erected and

fixed securely in place.

Cleaning

Nitobond EP should be removed from tools, equipment and

mixers with Fosroc Solvent 102 immediately after use.

Hardened material can only be removed mechanically.

High temperature working

Whilst the performance properties of Nitobond EP at elevated

temperatures are assured, application under such conditions

can sometimes be difficult. It is therefore suggested that, for

temperatures above 35ºC, the following guidelines are adopted

as a prudent working regime:

(i) Store unmixed materials in a cool (preferably temperature

controlled) environment, avoiding exposure to direct

sunlight.

(ii) Keep mixing and placing equipment cool, arranging shade

protection if necessary. It is especially important to keep

cool those surfaces of the equipment which will come into

direct contact with the material itself.

(iii) Try to eliminate application in the middle of the day, and

certainly avoid application in direct sunlight.

(iv) Have a ready supply of Fosroc Solvent 102 available for

immediate cleaning of tools after use.

Estimating

Supply

Nitobond EP : 1 and 4 litre packs

Fosroc Solvent 102 : 5 litre cans

Coverage

Nitobond EP : 3.5 - 4.0 m2/litre

Note: The coverage figures for Nitobond EP products are

theoretical - due to wastage factors and the variety

and nature of possible substrates, practical coverage

figures will be reduced.

Nitobond EP 'fast set' suitable for cold weather working can

be made available when specifically requested.

Storage

Shelf life

Nitobond EP has a shelf life of 12 months. Fosroc Solvent

102 has a shelf life of 24 months if kept in a dry store in the

original unopened packs.

Storage conditions

Store in dry conditions in the original unopened packs. If stored

at high temperatures, the shelf life may be reduced.

Limitations

- Nitobond EP should not be applied when the temperature

is below 5ºC or is 5ºC and falling. If any doubts arise

concerning temperature or substrate conditions, consult

the local Fosroc office.

Precautions

Health and safety

Nitobond EP and Fosroc Solvent 102 should not come in

contact with skin or eyes, or be swallowed. Ensure adequate

ventilation and avoid inhalation of vapours. Some people are

sensitive to resins, hardeners and solvents. Wear suitable

protective clothing, gloves and eye protection. If working in

confined areas, suitable respiratory protective equipment must

be used. The use of barrier creams provide additional skin

protection. In case of contact with skin, remove immediately

with resin removing cream followed by washing with soap

and water.

Do not use solvent. In case of contact with eyes, rinse

immediately with plenty of clean water and seek medical

advice. If swallowed, seek medical attention immediately -

do not induce vomiting.

Fire

Nitobond EP is non-flammable.

Fosroc Solvent 102 is flammable. Keep away from sources of

ignition. No smoking. In the event of fire, extinguish with CO2

or foam. Do not use a water jet.

Flash points

Fosroc Solvent 102 : 33ºC

For further information, refer to the Product Material Safety

Data Sheet.

Additional Information

Fosroc manufactures a wide range of complementary products

which include :

n waterproofing membranes & waterstops

n joint sealants & filler boards

n cementitious & epoxy grouts

n specialised flooring materials

Fosroc additionally offers a comprehensive package of

products specifically designed for the repair and refurbishment

of damaged concrete. Fosroc’s ‘Systematic Approach’ to

concrete repair features the following :

n hand-placed repair mortars

n spray grade repair mortars

n fluid micro-concretes

n chemically resistant epoxy mortars

n anti-carbonation/anti-chloride protective coatings

n chemical and abrasion resistant coatings

For more information log on to  http://www.fosroc.com/Default.aspx

STRAIN

In the physical sciences and engineering, a number that describes the relative deformation of elastic, plastic, and fluid materials under applied forces.

It arises throughout the material as the particles of the material are displaced from their usual position. Normal strain is caused by forces perpendicular to planes or cross sections of the material, such as in a volume that is under pressure on all sides. Shear strain is caused by forces that are parallel to, and lie in, planes or cross sections, such as in a short metal tube that is twisted about its longitudinal axis.

STRESS

In the physical sciences and engineering, the force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied forces, uneven heating, or permanent deformation.

Normal stress refers to the stress caused by forces that are perpendicular to a cross-section area of the material. Shear stress arises from forces that are parallel to the plane of the cross section. Stress is expressed as the quotient of a force divided by an area.

 

COLUMNS

In architecture, a vertical element, usually a slender shaft, that provides structural support by carrying axial loads in compression; columns are also subject to buckling.

Columns may be exposed or hidden in walls; constructed of precast concrete, masonry, stone, or wood or of steel wide-flange, pipe, or tubular sections; they may be plain, fluted, or sculpted, with or without a capital and base. Columns may also be nonstructural, used for decorative or monumental purposes.

BEAM
In building construction, a horizontal member spanning an opening and carrying a load.


The load may be a wall above the opening or it may be a floor or roof. Beams may be of wood, steel or other metals, reinforced or prestressed concrete, plastic, or even brick with steel reinforcement. For weight reduction, metal beams are I-shaped, having a thin vertical web and thicker horizontal flanges where greater stress occurs. A joist is any of a series of small parallel beams supporting a floor or roof. 

POLYMER CONCRETE

Continuous research by concrete technologists to understand, improve and develop the

properties of concrete has resulted in a new type of concrete known as, “Polymer Concrete”.

It is referred time and again in the earlier chapters that the concrete is porous. The porosity

is due to air-voids, water voids or due to the inherent porosity of gel structure itself. On

account of the porosity, the strength of concrete is naturally reduced. It is conceived by many

research workers that reduction of porosity results in increase of strength of concrete.Therefore, process like vibration, pressure application spinning etc., have been practised mainly

to reduce porosity. All these methods have been found to be helpful to a great extent, but

none of these methods could really help to reduce the water voids and the inherent porosity

of gel, which is estimated to be about 28%. The impregnation of monomer and subsequent

polymerisation is the latest technique adopted to reduce the inherent porosity of the concrete,

to improve the strength and other properties of concrete.

The pioneering work for the development of polymer concrete was taken up by United

States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR). The initial exploratory works carried out at the

Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in cooperation with USBR and US in Atomic Energy

Commission (AEC) revealed great improvement in compressive strength, permeability, impact

resistance and abrasion resistance.

The development of concrete-polymer composite material is directed at producing a new

material by combining the ancient technology of cement concrete with the modern

technology of polymer chemistry.

Type of Polymer Concrete

Four types of polymer concrete materials are being developed presently. They are:

(a) Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC).

(b) Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC).

(c) Polymer Concrete (PC).

(d) Partially Impregnated and surface coated polymer concrete.

Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)

Polymer impregnated concrete is one of the widely used polymer composite. It is nothing

but a precast conventional concrete, cured and dried in oven, or by dielectric heating from

which the air in the open cell is removed by vacuum. Then a low viscosity monomer is diffused

through the open cell and polymerised by using radiation, application of heat or by chemical

initiation.

Mainly the following types of monomer are used:

(a) Methylmethacrylate (MMA),

(b) Styrene,

(c) Acrylonitrile,

(d) t-butyl styrene,

(e) Other thermoplastic monomers.

The amount of monomer that can be loaded into a concrete specimen is limited by the

amount of water and air that has occupied the total void space. It is necessary to know the

concentration of water and air void in the system to determine the rate of monomer

penetration. However, the main research effort has been towards obtaining a maximum

monomer loading in concrete by the removal of water and air from the concrete by vacuum

or thermal drying, the latter being more practicable for water removal because of its rapidity.

Another parameter to consider is evacuation of the specimen prior to soaking in

monomer. This eliminates the entrapment of air towards the centre of the specimen during

soaking which might otherwise prevent total or maximum monomer loading. The application

of pressure is another technique to reduce monomer loading time.Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC)

Polymer cement concrete is made by mixing cement, aggregates, water and monomer.

Such plastic mixture is cast in moulds, cured, dried and polymerised. The monomers that are

used in PCC are:

(a) Polyster-styrene.

(b) Epoxy-styrene.

(c) Furans.

(d) Vinylidene Chloride.

However, the results obtained by the production of PCC in this way have been

disappointing and have shown relatively modest improvement of strength and durability. In

many cases, materials poorer than ordinary concrete are obtained. This behaviour is explained

by the fact that organic materials (monomers) are incompatible with aqueous systems and

sometimes interfere with the alkaline cement hydration process.

Recently Russian authors have reported the production of a superior Polymer cement

concrete by the incorporation of furfuryl alcohol and aniline hydrochloride in the wet mix. This

material is claimed to be specially dense and non-shrinking and to have high corrosion

resistance, low permeability and high resistance to vibrations and axial extension.

Washington State University in cooperation with Bureau of Reclamation tested the

incorporation of several monomers into wet concrete for preparing PCC for fabrication of

distillation units for water disalination plants. However, it is reported that only epoxy resin

produced a concrete that showed some superior characteristics over ordinary concrete.

Polymer Concrete (PC)

Polymer concrete is an aggregate bound with a polymer binder instead of Portland

cement as in conventional concrete.

The main technique in producing PC is to minimise void volume in the aggregate mass

so as to reduce the quantity of polymer needed for binding the aggregates. This is achieved

by properly grading and mixing the aggregates to attain the maximum density and minimum

void volume. The graded aggregates are prepacked and vibrated in a mould. Monomer is

then diffused up through the aggregates and polymerisation is initiated by radiation or

chemical means. A silane coupling agent is added to the monomer to improve the bond

strength between the polymer and the aggregate. In case polyester resins are used no

polymerisation is required.

An important reason for the development of this material is the advantage it offers over

conventional concrete where the alkaline Portland cement on curing, forms internal voids.

Water can be entrapped in these voids which on freezing can readily crack the concrete. Also

the alkaline Portland cement is easily attacked by chemically aggressive materials which results

in rapid deterioration, whereas polymers can be made compact with minimum voids and are

hydrophobic and resistant to chemical attack. The strength obtained with PC can be as high

as 140 MPa with a short curing period.

However, such polymer concretes tend to be brittle and it is reported that dispersion of

fibre reinforcement would improve the toughness and tensile strength of the material.